Could A Playground be too safe?? Extra Credit

          

  Are parents actually protecting their children from getting hurt or are they doing the opposite when preventing kids from performing semi-dangerous acts? That’s the question many scientists are looking into when discussing the new safety regulations of public playgrounds. Because many parents are afraid of their toddlers accidentally falling off of playground jungle gyms, they have started to lower the heights of bars or eliminating them altogether. Though many parents believe that this will ultimately save the child from injuries such as concussions and broken arms, taking away the need for height and speed, dangerous but necessary, may have harmful effects on children, as they get older. Scientists have discovered that children that are not exposed to extreme heights or fast motion become more susceptible to have a fear of height when they are older. It is proven that kids need to have both speed and height in order to have healthy emotional development when dealing with more dangerous situations. For instance, if a child is prevented from going down a very steep slide in a park and is deprived of that experience for most of the important development age (2-5) that child could have a fear of heights; the same goes for high jungle gyms. Also, it is not even a proven fact that lower bars or lower play sets have a less of an injury rate then the higher more risky play toys; therefore, there is really no harm in having the higher structures. Also, children feel more of a sense of accomplishment when they finally reach the top of a high jungle gym because they completed a harder task then if they were to scale a four-foot-tall set of bars; there is nothing better than feeling like you have just reached the top of the world. Jungle gyms, though sometimes controversial due to their height, are an essential learning tool for children.

http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/19/science/19tierney.html?_r=1&ref=science

About RANAAAAA

. She wears a bracelet with her name on it from france! So if people dont know her namee s She likes to watch trees move outside her winnddooow and she gets easily distracteedd. Her nice black flats are very shiny and she likes to wear white. Her hair is very pretty down but she keeps it up because she doesn't like it. She has a lap top and a backpack a nice big hole in it. Rana likes to make faces and kick rebecca in the butt. She likes to get distracteddd but its okkkk because she is a very popular girl. Rana is very cute and hates being called cute.

About EVA

Eva nazar is a cool girl. She likes to write about peoples' styles while she drinks her coke and talks outloud. She likes to wear her semi bright blond hair with a bobby pin and her bangs? in aa twissttt. she has two rings on her fingers and likes to type with them. Her stylish flats do not let any air near her toes so they must get hot. She should take after me and have some holes in her stylish shoes. She must be very hot wearing black jeans during summer. Shhess not gona get tan! her bright blue shirt is very stylish its must be  one of her favorite colorsss. Eva nazar is a really cool  girl.

About DANA

Dana is hard to explain in a couple words, but I can try. Lets see dana is crazy, funny, amusing, sweet, interesting..., demanding (but only in a good way), not really judgmental, pretty, caring (about herself... jk), a great friend in hard situations, and a great person.. sometimes :P. Best of all shes loved by a bunch of people and is really cool.

Final Blog of the course

The most valuable learning from summer chemistry has been the ability to learn concepts in one day and be tested on them the next; it really makes me motivated to pay more attention in class. I feel like I understand new concepts that may have been more difficult during the year because in summer school I can focus my full attention on learning them rather than having other homework that I have to complete as well. I really enjoyed the experiments because I felt like they taught organization and the taught a lesson in a more interesting way than having a teacher lecture. The lab experiments were really different than anything I am used to and I learned a lot from them. However, I think that the most valuable lesson was learning to become focused in class and learning how to use the periodic table. I feel like the periodic table is a really good tool to understand completely and I am glad we focused so much time on learning many of the key properties of the table. The course has been a great learning tool for study skills and learning new concepts that will be useful in future science courses.

All homework for the last week

1. The relationship that describes the relationship between the frequency of electromagnetic radiation and its energy is that there is a 1 to 1 relationship because as the frequency increases the energy increases.
2. Spectrum is a good term because it means a wide range and there is a wide range of the types of energy found in electromagnetic radiation.
3. Visible light is useful in plant synthesis because they help the plant produce carbohydrates, which are either consumed by the plant itself or are consumed by other animals. The non visible-more-powerful electromagnetic radiation can actually harm plants. UV-C is known to kill viruses and bacteria and could probably kill plants, while others like infrared could heat the plant till it dries out.
4. The main types of electromagnetic radiation are Ultraviolet radiation, visible radiation, and infrared radiation.
1. Ultraviolet radiation- needed for life because it provides vitamin D but can also harm and end life when found as UV-C. Visible light- energizes electrons and provides energy for photosynthesis. Infrared radiation- creates the heat we feel from the sun.
5. Ultraviolet light’s frequency is so high that it can kill viruses and bacteria while visible light has a lower frequency and is not as potent.
6. Infrared light can barely reach the surface because it is readily absorbed by CO₂ it is also held into the atmosphere by green house gases and part of the problem of global warming. Visible radiation is barely absorbed by the atmosphere with 90% of the radiation reaching Earth’s surface on a clear day. Uv radiation is has three subcategories with two being able to reach Earth’s surface and one that is completely absorbed, UV-C is completely absorbed and UV-A and UV-B can reach Earth.
7. The two main effects of solar radiation are global heating and photosynthesis can be done.
8. Hot asphalt will heat more readily than lake water because the asphalt is being directly bombarded with the radiation, while the lake water is more spread out and deeper so it is harder to heat.
1. Their density and surface.
9. Atmospheric CO₂ helps maintain moderate temperatures because the gas prevents full contact with some of the sun’s harmful radiation and contains the heat inside our atmosphere. Water vapor protects the Earth from harmful rays through cloud cover and also helps absorb heat.
10. A. CO₂- burning wood and burning petroleum; two natural causes are plants decomposing and animals decomposing
1. CH₄- The methane emissions that come from factories and too many cows rooming around are two human activities that can increase the amount; Methane gas is emitted in fires and when plants decompose.
11. Changes that would cause the temp of the earth to:
1. Increase- More CO₂ and water vapor in the atmosphere would cause a certain increase of heat
2. Decrease- less than the normal amount of CO₂ in the atmosphere would cause earth to be cooler because it would not hold any heat in.
12. A green house is warmer on a sunny winter day because the glass traps the heat inside by allowing the heat in and a green house (has CO₂ from the plants inside) prevents the heat from leaving, which protects the plants from freezing.
13. On paper.
14. Three chemical reservoirs of carbon atoms are atmospheric CO₂ gas, solid calcium carbonate, and organic molecules.
15. Over time a particular carbon atom can be part of the atmosphere (as CO₂), biosphere (in humans), lithosphere (fossil fuels), and hydrosphere (limestone) because of the carbon cycle where carbon comes into the atmosphere and cycles through all of the substances listed above.

1-4 344

1. Human exposure to ultraviolet radiation is potentially more harmful then infrared because ultraviolet radiation has a higher frequency than infrared and is not as absorbed in the atmosphere.
2. Two essential roles played by visible solar radiation are photosynthesis and produces the visible color changes of the sky during a sunset
3. Drier regions experience more extreme weather conditions than humid regions because in humid regions the water vapor in the air prevents a lot of the solar radiation and heat from actually reaching the surface of the Earth.
4. Suppose Earth has a less dense atmosphere than it does now:
1. Average daytime temperatures would be extremely hot (hot enough to scramble a rock) because the amount of solar radiation that would get into our atmosphere would drastically change the weather conditions.
2. The nighttime temperatures would be extremely cold because the amount of CO₂ would be insufficient and not contain the reradiating heat coming from the earth.

p. 232 1-30

1.     A hydrocarbon is a molecule made of hydrogen atoms and carbon atoms with a carbon backbone and hydrogen branches

2.     Petroleum is easy to refine, non-expensive, produces a large amount of energy and products, and is easy to find.

3.     Oil is crude because it is not a renewable resource that can be used when found in its original state in nature.

4.     The U.S uses about 20 million barrels of petroleum daily:

1.     The average number of barrels of petroleum used daily in the U.S for building purposes is 4,000,000 barrels

2.     On average 16,000,000 barrels of fuel are burned daily in the U.S

3.     Gasoline, petrochemicals, and diesel fuel oil are obtained from crude oil.

4.     4 household items made from petroleum

a.     Petroleum jelly, wax, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals 

b.     The materials that could be substituted are certain kinds of plants or pigments. Also natural pharmaceuticals.

5.     Questions about figure 3.4

a.     The world region that has the most petroleum reserves relative to its population is the Middle Eastern are.

b.     Western Europe has the least reserves

6.     Continued:

a.     The regions that consume greater proportions of the supply than they posses are The U.S and Western Europe

b.     The regions that use smaller supply of the petroleum levels Central and South America, the Middle East, and Africa.

7.     Under distillation density could be used to separate two different liquids.

8.     Acetone and water would be the easiest to separate because water has a much higher boiling point then acetone; therefore, there is no chance of any water evaporating when the acetone does.

9.     On paper

10.  Fractional distillation distills a substance in fractions and creates different physical states of the substance, which differs from regular distillation because regular distillation leaves all the substances in their liquid state.

11.  From light- heating and cooking fuel, petrochemicals, and starting material for plastics; from intermediate- heating fuel, petroleum gas, and kerosene; from heavy- petroleum jelly, wax, and road oils and asphalt.

12.  I would expect the bottom fraction to have the highest boiling point because they are solids.

13.  In order to further separate the components of each fraction you could perform distillation a second time.

14.  Ranking for boiling points- Methane, pentane, hexane, and octane. The reason is the higher amount of hydrogen the higher the boiling point.

15.  A covalent bond is a bong formed between atoms when they share their valence electrons.

16.  Atoms with filled outer electron shells do not form covalent bonds because they are stable and do not have room for any more electrons.

17.  The analogy describes the way that shared electrons hold together because they both equally want the shared electrons to make them stable like the noble gases and they are not willing to let go unless the bond is severed (the sock is taken away).

18.  The information that a structural formula conveys is the shape of a three dimensional molecule, while a molecular formula just states the atoms present.

19.  A structural formula is an inadequate representation of an actual molecule because it does not show how the 3D version of the atom looks.

20.  On paper.

21.  The four dots shown by the Lewis dot structure are the representations of the valence electrons. The valence electrons are in the outer shell and are the electrons available for sharing.

22.   Use the general molecular formula:

a.     9- C₉H₂₀

b.     16- C₁₆H₃₄

c.     10- C₁₀H₂₂

d.     18- C₁₈H₃₈

23.  The molar mass of each alkane listed:

a.     128g

b.     226g

c.     142g

d.     254g

24.  Name and give the molecular formula for the alkane with a molar mass of

a.     44g/mol- Heptane and C₇H₁₆

b.     72g/mol- help!

25.  The –ane implies that the carbon-carbon bonding in hexane is that its an alkane.

26.  Yes the models are isomers of each other because they have the same chemical formula with the CH₃s on the ends of the molecules, but they have different layouts and branches.

27.  On paper

28.  The shortest-chain alkane that can demonstrate isomerism is CH₄

29.  Both representations are correct because a linear chain and a zigzag chain have the same chemical formula and layout but with one having a more even pattern.

30.  A. On paper

a.     A branched chain will have a lower boiling because it has less molecule-to-molecule contact.

31.  Which of each pair would have the lower boiling point? Describe why:

a.     A short, straight chain or a long, straight chain?  A short straight chain will have a lower boiling point because it is easier to separate and takes less time to separate.

b.     A short, branched chain or a long, branched chain. A short branched chain would have a lower boiling point because the branched chain would be denser and, therefore, the shorter the chain the easier to separate.

c.     A short, branched chain or a long, straight chain? A short branched chain would have a lower boiling point because it has less molecule to molecule contact

P 258 1-10

1.     Petroleum is sometimes considered “buried sunshine” because it is technically fossilized plants that once performed photosynthesis with aid from the suns rays.

2.     Define and give on example of

a.     Potential energy- a rubber ball on the ground has potential energy

b.     Kinetic energy- a rubber ball kicked on the ground

3.     In chemical reactions chemical bonds are broken to form new bonds

4.     A molecule of methane has more potential energy because it can be easily burned.

5.     Classify each of the following as primarily a demonstration of kinetic energy or potential:

a.     Potential energy

b.     Potential energy

c.     Kinetic energy

d.     Potential energy

e.     Kinetic energy

6.     Energy is required to break chemical bonds because energy is needed to make the chemical bonds

7.     Determine whether exo- or endothermic:

a.     Burning wood in a campfire is endothermic because it is a chemical reaction and the bonds are breaking

b.     Cracking large hydrocarbon molecules is exothermic because new bonds are being made

c.     Digesting a candy bar is endothermic because bonds are being broken and exothermic because new bonds are forming.

8.     The quantity of energy stored in the reactants is greater than that of the energy stored in the products because most of the potential energy was transferred into kinetic energy

9.     On paper

10.  The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed.

Striking it rich Lab

1. The untreated coins color is the same copper red color; the one that was heated turned goldish yellow, and the one that was only put in the zinc chloride turned silver with the same tarnish but less color.
2. Yes the coins contain zinc, which is what the copper is combined with when it is heated, to produce brass
3. The color looks more valuable, it could be more stable now that is it combined with zinc.
4. The copper atom combined with zinc to create brass
1. Yes you can combine it with something more reactive than zinc or copper.

Homework #5 week two semester two

1. An alloy is a solid combination of atoms of two or more elements.
2. Two examples of alloys I use regularly are 14 karat gold (in jewelry) and stainless steel (refrigerator door).
3. The nonmetal that is a component of both steel and stainless steel is Carbon ( C)
4. The formula, use, and an important physical properties of an alloy that I also a well-defined compound:
1. Cr₃Pt (chromium-platinum)
2. Used to form the basis of some commercial razor blade edges.
3. It has a constant, definite ratio of metallic atoms
5. The periodic table location of elements that behave as semiconductors is in the metalloid section because they are not fully conductive like metals, yet they aren’t completely nonconductive like nonmetals.
6. Three elements that are commonly used for doping semiconductors are Phosphorous, arsenic, and Aluminum
7. The primary uses of the products of semiconductor technology are as transistors and integrated computer circuits.

Homework #4 week two semester two

1. The difference between reusing and recycling is that reusing means taking parts or sections and of the old substance and using them as part of something new or using them in a new creative way; recycling is taking something old and melting it down to turn it into something new completely
1. Two examples of substances that are recyclable are newspapers and water bottles; two examples of substance that are reusable are old clothes and old computer parts.
2. Four examples of:
1. Renewable resources: solar power, wind energy, biodiesel fuel, and geothermal electric energy.
2. Nonrenewable resources: petroleum, coal, metal, and natural gas
3. Classify as reusing or recycling:
1. Reusing
2. Recycling
3. Reusing
4. The life cycle of a light bulb has a very different process than that of a newspaper. Obtaining the resources, producing the product, makes the newspaper and recycling while a light bulb may be used from different recycled products. Also newspaper uses renewable resources while a light bulb is not.

Copper retrieval lab

Observation:

Before: Powdery with some solids. Black and it has a little copper color in it too.

After adding Hydrochloric solution: It is becoming harder, some more solids are forming,. It is starting to look like copper again

Filter paper: .98

Zinc: Bubbling, and its starting to turn black, dissolving, copper is coming out. Solid copper is forming on the zinc. It looks like corals.

Question:

1. During Investigation. Matter B.3, not all of the original copper powder reacted when you heated it in air.
1. A. What observational evidence leads you to think that the reaction was incomplete? Not all of the copper is dissolved.
2. How would you revise the procedure so that more copper oxide could form? React copper more

2. a. The mass of the original powdered copper that reacted was 1.36g
b. The percent of the total copper sample reacted 189% (this number may be incorrect because some small amounts of zinc might have still been present, which altered the weight)

3. In the reaction between copper chloride solution and zinc metal, in Investigation. Cu^2+ ion gained two electrons to form an atom of copper metal. Each zinc metal atom lost two electrons to form a Zn^2+

a. Write a balance chemical equation that represents this process:

CuCl+Zn-à Zn^2+Cl + Cu

B. Zinc+ Oxidized

Reactant reduced is copper chloride

The reducing agent: Coper Chloride

The oxidizing agent: Zinc

4

a. .After adding zinc the color became cloudy white

b. The reaction between copper and the zinc when the zinc is less reactive than copped, its going to change the copper ion back into the copper metal

c.The color results in the copper ion going into solution.

b. The hydrochloric acid

Each resource when into solution

Solar power from space: beam it down

Solar power has long been an option to reduce consumption of coal as Earth’s only energy source, yet what if people could use the intense solar rays directly from space? With the new technology, that is currently being investigated, more solar power than we would be able to grasp on Earth may be at our fingertips. Space enthusiasts believe the space- based-solar collector could obtain about 5 times as much solar power as that on Earth. When solar energy enters our atmosphere it comes in contact with air and is less concentrated then out in space; therefore, scientists believe if they find the correct window for entry they can magnify the solar energy by beaming it down directly from a satellite. However, at the moment this dream is out of reach due to the extreme costs of the satellites and their transportation to space, but hopeful scientists are anticipating the satellites use in a couple of years; the satellites would be specialized to give power to special companies like military and rescue workers. This summer many of the scientists’ dreams may become reality as the first satellite is tested with microwaves to see if it will be ready for the harsh powers of the sun. Dr Sweeny and his team at Astrium will be testing the satellite with a laser to see if the solar power will be able to concentrate as it enters Earth. The beam will be produced by a device called a fibre laser it generates the coherent light of a laser beam in the core of a long, thin optical fibre, which allows the beam produced to be of a higher quality than other laser beams. After the land test the proceeding test will be in space, yet this test will not be available for five more years and the probability that an orbiting power source will be in space in the next couple years is not likely; however, there is a slight possibility that there will be an orbiting power source in 10 years. Who knows maybe the future of complete renewable energy is knocking on Earth’s door.

http://www.economist.com/node/18864324

Homework #3 week two semester two

1. 6 moles of NH₃ are needed to react with h9 mol PbO
1. 5 moles N₂ are produced by the reaction of 9 mol NH₃
2. 5 moles Pb are produced from 5 mol PbO
2. 34 moles max can be produced from 34.0 g NH₃
1. 621g Pb
2. 62 g max N₂
3. 2 PbO ( 446.4)g
3. Because oxygen is a diatomic molecule (two atoms of O) the mass is 32 g not 16g and therefore 73 % of oxygen atoms make up CO₂
4. 87% of Ag is in Ag₂S
1. 53% of Al  is in Al₂O₃
2. 40% of Ca is in CaCO₃
5. 68% of Pb is in PbSO₄
6. 10% of PbSO₄  is in the ore
7. 57% of Pb is in the entire ore



10% of PbSO4 is in the ore



68% of Pb is in PbSO4

Homework #2 week one semester two

1. The law of conservation of matter states that atoms cannot be destroyed or created; therefore, all equations must be balanced always.
2. A scientific law is what has been observed and learned from nature.
3. “using up” and “throwing away” are misleading because according to the conservation of matter no atoms can be destroyed because the energy does not get destroyed it just gets transformed into a different substance.
4. Sn + HF becomes SnF₂ + H₂
1. Sn = 1             Sn=1
2. H = 1               H=2
3. F = 1               F = 2
4. This equation is not balanced because there are two Hydrogens and Flurines on the product side but only 1 of each on the reactant side.
5. SiO₂+ C becomes SiC + CO
1. Si = 1              Si = 1
2. O = 2               O = 1
3. C = 1               C = 2
4. The equation is not balanced because the Carbon atoms and the oygen atoms are unbalanced.
6. Al (OH)_3­ + 3 HCl becomes AlCl_3­ + 3 H₂O
1. Al = 1              Al = 1
2. O = 3               O = 3
3. H = 6               H = 6
4. Cl = 3              Cl = 3
5. The equation is balanced
7. N₂ + 3 H₂ becomes 2 NH₃
1. The coefficient of Hydrogen gas is 3
2. The coefficient of NH₃ gas is 2
3. The coefficient of nitrogen gas is 1
8. On paper
9.   1   Ca₃(PO₄)₂ +     3  H₂ SO₄ becomes    2  H₃PO₄ +  3    CaSO₄
1. Ca = 3                                     Ca = 3
2. P = 2                                       P = 2
3. O = 20                                       O = 20
4. H = 6                                       H = 6
5. S = 3                                       S = 3
10.         C₈H₁₈ +  14  O₂ becomes      8    CO₂ +   9    H₂O
1. C = 8                                       C= 8
2. H = 18                                     H = 18
3. O = 2                                       O = 28
11. Na = 2, S = 1, O = 4, K = 2, Cl = 1 becomes Na = 2, Cl = 1, K = 2, S = 1, O = 4
1. The student did not create a balanced equation because all the atoms are conserved properly, yet the student changed the subscripts when the coefficients are the only ones that are supposed to change.
12. ?
13. Molar mass of O₂ = 32, ozone = 48, CaCO_3­ = 100, Mg(OH) ₂ = 58 g, C₉H₈O_4­ = 180
14. The samples can both accurately represent 1 mol of each substance because 1 mol of a substance is a different measurement for each substance because each substance has a different atomic mass (= 1 mol).
15.  If one mole of potassium metal has a mass of 39.1 g:
1. There is 1 atom in 39.1 g potassium
2. There is .5 atoms in 19.55 g potassium
3. There is .1 atom in 3.91 g potassium
4. There is .03 atoms in 1.0 g of potassium

Metal repot: Au

Metal report: Gold

Katrina Cymerman

   Gold, an extremely precious metal turns out to have many uses though it is extremely rare to find it in nature at the present moment. The atomic symbol is Au for gold’s original Latin name aurum. Gold, in its natural state, has 79 electrons and 79 protons, and is known as one of the heavier elements on the periodic table due to the fact that the atomic mass is 197 g. Gold has many different uses: jewelry, U.S. coins, electric wiring, and (in a thin foil like form) on different space crafts. Gold has been seen as a precious metal throughout history; from the present to the ancient Egyptians gold has been used to decorate buildings as well as people and as a way to show wealth. Though known as a “noble metal” for its relatively low reactivity, gold is known to combine with different substances to form gold ores and alloys. Gold is mined throughout the world and usually found in its pure form. However, the gold nuggets that were once discovered in rivers to the cries of “Eureka!” are no longer as common because of the extensive demand for gold and the amount of the metal that is being mined each day.

• Characteristics of Gold (Au)
• Color
• Gold is known for its yellow metallic color and its high luster; however, there are some varieties to the color especially when mixed with different metals such as copper and silver, which give gold a reddish tint (rose gold).
• Ductile
• Gold is the most ductile of all the metals because it is also the most malleable of the metals. For example, an ounce of gold can be stretched into 300 square feet of wiring, which makes gold an ideal substance for electrical wiring.
• Malleability
• The malleability of gold makes it possible to be used in extremely thin forms. Some of the thinnest forms of gold are used for food as decorations and some are used for the gold foil in astronauts’ suits to protect them from the harsher conditions in space.
• Electrical conductivity
• Gold is an excellent conductor of electricity and is used in electric wiring due to this fact. However, gold is very pricey so it is not used often in wiring for wiring in peoples’ homes.
• Chemical reactivity
• Though known as a “noble metal” because gold does not react readily with many substances such as air, water, or acids (making it useful for coins and jewelry because it will last long in harsh conditions), yet gold is not completely inert; it reacts readily with a substance called tellurium, though that is not the only mineral is reacts with.
• Uses and applications
• Monetary exchange
• Gold coins are not only a symbol of wealth but are a good investment as the price of gold goes up.
• Gold is too soft to be used in its pure state for anything so it is combined with copper, silver, or other metals in order to harden it. Pure gold is seen as 24 karats.
• Gold standards- total value of money is equal to the amount of gold reserves for a country
• Gold standards were changed during the first world war, which cause inflation and ended all together after the second world war
• Jewelry
• Gold has been used in jewelry throughout history
• However, gold is not used in its pure state and is usually combined with copper to harden it
• Depending on the amount of copper sometimes gold can have a reddish hue to it (rose gold)
• Other times silver is used as an alloy to gold and creates white gold.
• Medicine
• In ancient times people believed that drinking gold was beneficial to health and will lengthen peoples’ lives or maybe even let them live forever.
• Gold as a metallic element is inert to all chemicals in the body and will not cure or help any illnesses; however, gold as a salt can help inflammation and are used to treat arthritis as well as other inflammatory conditions.
• Injectable gold can help treat diseases like tuberculosis
• Food and drink
• Gold foil is used on top of many desserts and is seen as a beautiful decoration to any food.
• Gold is also used in alcoholic drinks known as Goldwasser but gives no taste to the substance.
• Chemistry
• Gold is dissolved in alkaline solutions of potassium or sodium cyanide
• Sodium cyanide is used to extract gold from ores
• Gold’s oxidation forms range from -1 to +5 but Au(I) and Au(III) are most common in chemistry
• History
• Gold was used by the ancient Egyptians in tombs, vases, Funerary masks, and jewelry
• Romans developed ways to extract metal from metal ores and introduced hydraulic mining methods.
• The Aztec people regarded gold as the product of the gods
• Gold has been considered the most sought after metal for centuries
• Since gold has been used for centuries and seems to appear at the same time in many different countries; therefore no exact discovery date has been listed. The probable date of discovery would have been before written documentation.
• Gold was used to decorate palaces and pyramids 
• The metal has been used throughout history in mostly the same way that we use gold today
• Toxicity
• Pure metallic gold is non toxic and can be ingested
• Gold ion is toxic
• Gold chloride can be harmful to livers and kidneys
• Gold poisoning is rare but it can happen and cases of poisoning are usually from potassium gold cyanide
• Gold was voted allergen of the year in 2001  and the allergy to gold is mostly found in women
• Occurance
• Found in ores or in rocks of gold called nuggets
• Sometimes occurs combined with tellurium to form the minerals calaverite, krennerite, magyatite, etc.
• Gold can be found in oceans, rivers, on land in ores or in nuggets
• Production
• Gold is easily mined
• South Africa has been a source for a large quantity of mined gold
• 50% of all gold has been mined from South Africa
• China is now the largest producer of gold in the world
• Other smaller producers are the United states, Australia, Russia, and Peru
• In 2009 estimated that the amount of all the gold ever mined is equal to 165,000 tones with a value of 6.6 trillion dollars
• Isotopes
• There is only one naturally occurring isotope of gold and it is ¹⁹⁷ Au. However, gold does have thirty six radioisotopes with the only stable one being ¹⁹⁵Au with a half life of 186.1 days.
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
• Interesting facts about gold
• Gold has been recycled ever since it was first discovered; some gold in today’s jewelry is recycled from ancient artifacts and coins
• India is the largest consumer of gold
• Gold film was used in the Astronauts’ (that first landed on the moon) helmets to protect their eyes from the harsh sun.
• Some cars use gold for heat dissipation (scattering)

Homework #4 week one semester two

1. Active metals are more difficult to process because they react to readily with other elements and are very unstable in their pure forms. Less active metals do not readily share electrons with other elements making them easier to process and keep in their pure forms.
2. The metals involved int the investigation that were the easiest to process where silver and copper because they are both less reactive than any of the other metals used in the experiment and do not readily share electrons making them harder to oxidize.
3. Most metals exist in nature as minerals rather than as pure metallic elements because most metals react readily with other substances in order to stabilize themselves; in nature most metals are too unstable in their pure form.
4. The reaction that is most likely to occur is chromium metal with calcium chloride because calcium is more likely to combine and share its electrons with chloride because it is more reactive then chromium.
5. The equation that is most likely to occur is 2Ag⁺ + Zn to 2Ag + Zn ²⁺ because zinc is more reactive then silver and therefore will readily lose 2 electrons to silver, which is less reactive.
6. It would be a poor idea to stir a solution of lead(II)  nitrate with an iron spoon because Iron is more reactive and will lose electrons to the lead nitrate; therefore, the solution will become an iron lead nitrate solution rather than just a lead nitrate solution.
1. PbN ²⁺+ Fe to Fe²⁺ PbN
7. Define”
1. Oxidation- losing electrons to another element and becoming a positive ion
2. Reduction- stabilizing by gaining two electrons from another element.
8. Au³⁺ + 3e^- to become Au.
1. Iv – 1e^- to become Iv⁺
2. Cu⁺- 1e^_ to become Cu²⁺
9. A.  is a reduction
1. Is an oxidation
2. Is an reduction
10. The reactant that has been oxidized is Zn because it became an ion by losing two of its electrons to Ni.
1. The reactant that has been reduced is the Ni because it became the  pure metal by gaining two electrons from Zn.
2. The reducing agent is Zn because it provides the electrons.
11. After considering equation:
1. The reactant that has been oxidized is K because it loses an electron to Hg.
2. The reactant that has been reduced is Hg because it gained an electron from K in order to make it stable.
3. The oxidizing agent in this reaction is Hg because it gains electrons.
12. Al + Cr³⁺ becomes Al³⁺ + Cr
1. Mn²⁺ +Mg becomes Mg²⁺ + Mn
13. How each of the following processes converts metal cations to metal atoms:
1. Electrometallurgy- A process that converts metal cations to metal atoms through an electric current that is shot through it.
2. Pyrometallurgy- the process in which the metal cations are heated until they become metal atoms.
3. Hydrometallurgy- The process where the metal cations are suspended in a water solution with different other substances in it in order to make the cations gain electrons to make them metal atoms.
14. The process that would be most useful in obtaining the following elements from theier metal ores are:
1. Magnesium- electrometallurgy
2. Lead- pyrometallurgy